Notes

• [1]
  Bureau Universitaire de Statistique et de Documentation Scolaires et Professionnelles, Recueil de statistiques scolaires et professionnelles: 1949–1950–1951 (hereafter Recueil de statistiques) (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1951), 81.
• [2]
  “Constitution de 1946, IVe République,” https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/les-constitutions-dans-l-histoire/constitution-de-1946-ive-republique (accessed 18 March 2019).
• [3]
  On the constraints of the interwar colonial school system, see Harry Gamble, Contesting French West Africa: Battles over Schools and the Colonial Order, 1900–1950 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2017), chapters 3–4. Soon after World War I, two secondary schools were founded in the Senegalese communes of Dakar and Saint-Louis. On these exceptional institutions, see ibid, chapter 7.
• [4]
  See esp. Frederick Cooper, Citizenship between Empire and Nation: Remaking France and French Africa, 1945–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014); and Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), parts 2 and 3.
• [5]
  Elizabeth A. Foster, African Catholic: Decolonization and the Transformation of the Church (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).
• [6]
  Jessica Lynne Pearson, The Colonial Politics of Global Health: France and the United Nations in Postwar Africa (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018).
• [7]
  On the semantic shifts introduced after World War II, and the elisions that they entailed, see Emily Marker, “Obscuring Race: Franco-African Conversations about Colonial Reform and Racism after World War II and the Making of Colorblind France, 1945–1950,” French Politics, Culture & Society 33, 3 (2015): 1–23, https://doi.org/10.3167/fpcs.2015.330301.
• [8]
  Décret “réglementant le régime des bourses accordées par les colonies pour la métropole et l’Afrique du Nord,” 30 May 1945, Journal Officiel de la République Française: Ordonnances et Décrets, 1 June 1945, 3144–3145. These provisions were subsequently updated by a decree dated 28 June 1949, “portant réglementation générale des bourses, prêts d’honneur et secours scolaires accordés par les territoires relevant du ministère de la France d’outre-mer, autres que l’Indochine, aux étudiants ou élèves en cours d’études dans la métropole, les départements d’outre-mer ou l’Algérie,” Journal Officiel de la République Française: Lois et Décrets (hereafter JORF), 2 July 1949, 6507–6508.
• [9]
  The originaires of Senegal’s Four Communes had been recognized officially as French citizens in 1916. The Four Communes became three in 1929, when Gorée was incorporated into the rapidly expanding city of Dakar. On early twentieth-century controversies surrounding the originaires and their education, see Gamble, Contesting, chapters 1–2.
• [10]
  On the enduring exceptionalism of the originaires after World War II, see Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, “Nationalité et citoyenneté en Afrique occidentale française: Originaires et citoyens dans le Sénégal colonial,” Journal of African History 42, 2 (2001): 285–305, esp. 296–304, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021853701007770.
• [11]
  Recueil de statistiques, 81.
• [12]
  A report filed in 1949 indicated that there were 565 scholarship students from AOF in France, of whom 243 were based in the Paris region. Roughly five hundred additional students from AOF were studying in the metropole without scholarships. Report by Monod (inspecteur général des étudiants à Paris) to high commissioner AOF, 8 August 1949, Centre des Archives Diplomatiques de Nantes (hereafter CADN), Fonds Dakar (hereafter FD), 344.
• [13]
  Recueil de statistiques, 77.
• [14]
  See the speech that High Commissioner René Barthes delivered at the end of 1947, at the inaugural session of the Grand Council of AOF, cited in Jean Capelle, L’éducation en Afrique noire à la veille des indépendances (1946–1958) (Paris: Karthala and Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, 1990), 47.
• [15]
  Capelle to directeur général de l’intérieur at the Government General (hereafter GG), 10 May 1949, CADN, FD 333.
• [16]
  Arrêté “portant réglementation en Afrique occidentale française des allocations scolaires,” 14 December 1950, Journal Officiel de l’Afrique Occidentale Française (hereafter JOAOF), 23 December 1950, 1955–1960. Although the various territories, and Senegal’s old communes, could contribute additional funds to those who had received scholarships for higher education, the selection of scholarship recipients was to be a federal prerogative.
• [17]
  Camerlynck to directeur général de l’intérieur (GG), 18 December 1951, CADN, FD 343.
• [18]
  Report from Picandet (who worked for the Service Temporaire des Étudiants, run by the Délégation du Haut Commissariat de l’AOF à Paris) to high commissioner AOF, 26 February 1952, CADN, FD 343. At the time, Saint-Louis and Rufisque were sponsoring seven and three students, respectively.
• [19]
  High Commissioner Bernard Cornut-Gentille to overseas minister, 18 April 1952, CADN, FD 343.
• [20]
  On these hesitations, see Catherine Atlan, “De la gestion à l’arbitrage politique: L’administration coloniale du Sénégal face aux premières élections libres de l’après-guerre (1945–1958),” Outre-Mers 90, 338–339 (2003): 133–152, https://doi.org/10.3406/outre.2003.4018; and Liz Fink, “Institutional Terra Non Firma: Representative Democracy and the Chieftaincy in French West Africa,” in France’s Modernizing Mission: Citizenship, Welfare and the Ends of Empire, ed. Ed Naylor (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 31–57.
• [21]
  Direction des Affaires Politiques (GG), “Note sur la réforme municipale en AOF,” 4 January 1954, CADN, FD 439.
• [22]
  “Décret portant réglementation de l’émigration et de la circulation des indigènes en Afrique occidentale française,” 24 April 1928, JOAOF, 19 May 1928, 350–351.
• [23]
  Arrêté “fixant les conditions de sortie du territoire de l’Afrique occidentale française, pour les originaires de ce territoire désirant se rendre dans la Métropole ou en Algérie,” 14 September 1946, JOAOF, 2 November 1946, 1321.
• [24]
  Since a standardized form of identification still did not exist in AOF during the immediate postwar years, individual territories or localities often pieced together their own procedures. In some cases, interwar travel documents and travel restrictions lingered on. With the creation of a federal identity card in 1949, AOF finally moved toward greater standardization. See Séverine Awengo Dalberto, “Le première carte d’identité d’Afrique occidentale française (1946–1960): Identifier et s’identifier au Sénégal au temps de la citoyenneté impériale,” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales 75, 1 (2020): 113–151, https://doi.org/10.1017/ahss.2020.114.
• [25]
  Béchard to the governors, 28 August 1949, CADN, FD 343.
• [26]
  Béchard (signed by Secretary-General Paul Chauvet) to overseas minister, 29 June 1949, CADN, FD 333. For another report on these incidents, perhaps involving some of the same students, see Capelle to directeur général de l’intérieur (GG), 13 June 1949, CADN, FD 333.
• [27]
  On the wide latitude that individual ministries and rank-and-file officials often had when it came to interpreting immigration laws and policies, and encouraging or discouraging particular groups, see Alexis Spire, Étrangers à la carte: L’administration de l’immigration en France (1945–1975) (Paris: Éditions Grasset & Fasquelle, 2005). On efforts to contain the migration of Algerian Muslims to the metropole, and to carry out select repatriations of these citizens, see ibid., chapter 6.
• [28]
  Béchard to governors, 28 August 1949; Capelle to directeur général de l’intérieur (GG), 10 May 1949, CADN, FD 333; Béchard to governors, 12 September 1949, CADN, FD 344.
• [29]
  Béchard to governors, 28 August 1949. CADN, FD 333.
• [30]
  The CFA franc, or franc des colonies françaises d’Afrique, was introduced at the end of 1945.
• [31]
  Arrêté “portant réglementation de l’émigration d’Afrique occidentale française vers la Métropole et l’Algérie,” 4 December 1949, JOAOF, 17 December 1949, 1670.
• [32]
  Cornut-Gentille to overseas minister, 18 April 1952, CADN, FD 343.
• [33]
  Yvon Bourges, “note sur l’organisation et le fonctionnement du service temporaire des étudiants à la Délégation de l’AOF à Paris,” 29 April 1952, CADN, FD 343. So as to contextualize the sums being offered, it is worth noting that African scholarship holders attending universities in France received monthly stipends of sixteen thousand French francs at the time. A CFA franc was worth two French francs.
• [34]
  See Michael Goebel, Anti-Imperial Metropolis: Interwar Paris and the Seeds of Third-World Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Jennifer Anne Boittin, Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2010); and Philippe Dewitte, Les mouvements nègres en France, 1919–1939 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1985).
• [35]
  Recueil de statistiques, 77.
• [36]
  Of the 2,942 students from Overseas France studying in French universities, fifteen hundred attended the University of Paris. These figures include students from all overseas possessions except Algeria. Women accounted for 15 percent of these students, as opposed to 35 percent of all metropolitan students. Ibid., 87.
• [37]
  See esp. Amady Aly Dieng, Histoire des organisations d’étudiants africains en France (1900–1950) (Dakar: L’Harmattan-Sénégal, 2011), part 2; and Amady Aly Dieng, Les premiers pas de la Fédération des étudiants d’Afrique noire en France (FEANF), 1950–1955: De l’Union française à Bandoung (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2003).
• [38]
  Whereas scholars have tended to downplay the influence of African Catholic students within anti-colonial movements in France, Elizabeth Foster has highlighted the influential roles that many Catholic student leaders assumed as of the mid-1950s. See Foster, African Catholic, chapter 4.
• [39]
  On the history and activism of the FEANF, see Dieng, Les premiers pas; Amady Aly Dieng, Les grands combats de la FEANF (Fédération des étudiants d’Afrique noire): De Bandung aux indépendances, 1955–1960 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009); and Françoise Blum, “L’indépendance sera révolutionnaire ou ne sera pas: Étudiants africains en France contre l’ordre colonial,” Cahiers d’Histoire: Revue d’Histoire Critique (2015): 119–138, https://doi.org/10.4000/chrhc.4165.
• [40]
  After tense confrontations, the French government eventually succeeded (in 1950) in engineering a divorce between the influential umbrella party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, and the PCF. The two parties had previously been affiliated. See Cooper, Citizenship, 172–178.
• [41]
  Cornut-Gentille to overseas minister, 18 April 1952, CADN, FD 343. On colonial responses to the activism of West African students, see also Louisa Rice, “Between Empire and Nation: Francophone West African Students and Decolonization,” Atlantic Studies 10, 1 (2013): 131–147, https://doi.org/10.1080/14788810.2013.764106.
• [42]
  On the founding and development of these two university colleges, see Apollos O. Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, and Nationalism: Britain and University Education for Africans, 1860–1960 (London: Frank Cass, 1997), chapters 5–6; and Katya Leney, Decolonisation, Independence, and the Politics of Higher Education in West Africa (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2003), 58–87, 135–190.
• [43]
  United Nations General Assembly, resolution 225 (III), on “Educational Advancement in Trust Territories,” 18 November 1948, www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/225(III) (accessed 20 March 2019).
• [44]
  “Report of the Sub-Committee on Education in Non-Self-Governing Territories,” in United Nations, Non-Self-Governing Territories: Summaries and Analyses of Information Transmitted to the Secretary-General during 1950, vol. 3, Special Study on Education (New York: United Nations Publications, 1951), 25.
• [45]
  See Béchard to education minister, 11 November 1948, Archives Nationales, main location in Pierrefitte-sur-Seine (hereafter AN) 20130014/178; and note from Béchard’s chief of staff to the directeur général de l’intérieur (GG), Jean Aurillac, 16 April 1949, CADN, FD 339.
• [46]
  See Pearson, The Colonial Politics.
• [47]
  “Discours prononcé par le Haut Commissaire de la République française devant le Grand Conseil de l’A.O.F., à l’ouverture de la session, le 29 septembre 1948,” in Bulletin du Grand Conseil de l’Afrique Occidentale Française: Procès-verbaux des Délibérations, 2ème séance ordinaire de l’année 1948, 21.
• [48]
  Béchard to overseas minister, 11 November 1948, AN 20130014/178.
• [49]
  Governmental decree “créant un Institut des Hautes Études à Dakar,” 6 April 1950, JOAOF, 22 April 1950, 757–758.
• [50]
  On the administrative rivalries that accompanied education reform in postwar AOF, see Gamble, Contesting, chapter 8.
• [51]
  Opened after World War I to train African auxiliary medical personnel, the École Africaine de Médecine declined rapidly in the wake of World War II and graduated its last students in July 1953.
• [52]
  Camerlynck, “Rapport relatif au fonctionnement de l’Institut des hautes études de Dakar pendant l’année scolaire 1952–1953,” March 1952, AN 19770641/8. Camerlynck subsequently provided an update on the development of the Fann site to the members of the Grand Council. See Bulletin du Grand Conseil de l’A.O.F., 2ème session ordinaire de l’année 1953, séance du samedi 14 novembre, 23–25.
• [53]
  On these uncertainties and impediments, see Capelle, L’éducation, 63–75, 271– 282.
• [54]
  “A bâtons rompus: Internat de Fann,” Dakar-Étudiant, April 1954, 7.
• [55]
  Amady Aly Dieng, Mémoires d’un étudiant africain, vol. 1, De l’École régionale de Diourbel à l’Université de Paris (1945–1960) (Dakar: CODESRIA, 2011), 35.
• [56]
  “Jeunesse qui se meurt,” Dakar-Étudiant, April 1954, 1.
• [57]
  Letter dated 9 November 1953, reproduced in Bulletin du Grand Conseil de l’A.O.F., 2ème session ordinaire de l’année 1953, séance du samedi 14 novembre 1953, 29. A full discussion of the state of the IHED took place; see pp. 16–27. For another account of the situation at the school of letters, see “Le problème de la propédeutique à Dakar,” Dakar-Étudiant, July 1954, 1–2.
• [58]
  “Lettre ouverte des membres de l’Association Générale des Étudiants de Dakar à M. le Haut-Commissaire, Gouverneur général de l’AOF,” signed by AGED President Moustapha Diallo, 22 November 1953, CADN, FD 344. Published subsequently in Dakar-Étudiant, July 1954, numéro spécial, 1–6.
• [59]
  “Annexe no 1: Statistiques des étudiants au 15 novembre 1954,” in “Procès-verbal de la réunion du conseil de l’Institut des hautes études,” 24 November 1954, AN 20130014/178.
• [60]
  Letter reprinted as part of the article “Les étudiants européens et l’AGED,” Dakar-Étudiant, February–March 1954. Article clipping found in CADN, FD 344.
• [61]
  On these deteriorating relations, see Tidiane Baïdy Ly, “Notre association à un tournant décisif de son histoire,” Dakar-Étudiant, December 1956, 5–6, 8.
• [62]
  Figures from Capelle, L’éducation, 224.
• [63]
  These developing ties are described in Daouda Sow, “L’A.G.E.D. au VIe congrès de la F.E.A.N.F. à Paris,” Dakar-Étudiant, March 1956, 2, 4, 6.
• [64]
  AGED leader Amady Aly Dieng recounts his many trips abroad in Dieng, Mémoires, vol. 1, 61–69. On the travels and networking of Basile Khaly, a Togolese student active in the AGED, see Basile Khaly, “L’A.G.E.D. au IXe conseil de l’U.I.E. à Moscou,” Dakar-Étudiant, April 1955 (issue incorrectly marked March), 1–2.
• [65]
  Amady Aly Dieng, “Rapport général sur les cours de vacances,” Dakar-Étudiant, January 1955, 13–15. Capitalization in original. Information on vacation courses in Mauritania and Ivory Coast had not yet been received; nor had figures for the Senegalese towns of Dakar and Linguère. No such courses were offered in Upper Volta. See also “À propos des cours de vacances,” Dakar-Étudiant, July 1954, 14–15.
• [66]
  “Loi n° 56-619 du 23 juin 1956 autorisant le Gouvernement à mettre en œuvre les réformes et à prendre les mesures propres à assurer l’évolution des territoires relevant du ministère de la France d’outre-mer,” JORF, June 1956, 5782–5784. On the loi-cadre, see esp. Cooper, Citizenship, chapter 5; Cooper, Decolonization, chapter 11; and Tony Chafer, The End of Empire in French West Africa: France’s Successful Decolonization? (Oxford: Berg, 2002), chapter 6.
• [67]
  Charles Diané, “Un scandale politique,” Dakar-Étudiant, January–February 1956, 1–4.
• [68]
  Ousmane Camara, “L’esprit de la loi-cadre,” Dakar-Étudiant, December 1956, 7–8. Camara has described his years as a student activist in Mémoires d’un juge africain: Itinéraire d’un homme libre (Paris: Karthala/Dakar: Center for Research on Social Policies, 2010), chapters 2–3.
• [69]
  See the account of Amady Aly Dieng, who helped to orchestrate this change of name and priorities. Dieng, Mémoires, vol. 1, 63. On these shifting positions, see also Chafer, The End of Empire, 128–131.
• [70]
  Ly, “Notre association,” 6. This was the first issue of Dakar-Étudiant published under the authority of the UGEAO.
• [71]
  Ibid., 6.
• [72]
  Gaston Cusin to overseas minister, 12 December 1956, AN 19770641/8.
• [73]
  Decree “instituant une université à Dakar,” 24 February 1957, JORF, 28 February 1957, 2297–2298. A French university had been founded in Algiers as of 1909.