Huang Zunxian and the ‘opening’ of Korea

The Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity (Treaty of Ganghwa) signed in 1876 is often perceived as the event marking the “opening” of Korea. This view, which emphasizes the role played by Japan, needs to be reassessed. Korean leaders did not see the Treaty as the beginning of a process of opening and modernization, and they did not intend to extend to Western nations the concessions granted to Japan. The real turning point came in 1880, and it was driven, against all odds, by Qing China. In that year, Huang Zunxian, then adviser to the Chinese first minister plenipotentiary to Japan, He Ruzhang, wrote a text for a Korean delegation visiting Japan. In this essay, “Strategy for Korea” (Chaoxian celue), Huang depicted the new international order that was looming in Asia and was about to replace the old China-centered order. It was an analysis of the challenges posed by this upheaval, and offered advice about how to meet them. It was this text that convinced Korean leaders to open up to Western nations and to embark on the path of modernization and self-strengthening.