1 Discrimination in the world of sports has increasingly become a public issue. In the past year only, we have seen societal and academic debates on discrimination along the lines of race, gender and class in very diverse sport contexts such as cricket, men’s and women’s football, or Formula 1 racing (e.g. Azzoni & Douglas, 2023; Independent Commission for Equity in Cricket, 2023; Mancera, 2023). The question of equal treatment of sportsmen and women and the fight against racism seem to have been placed higher on the political agenda of governments and international sports federations alike. Social movements such as BlackLives Matter, which have been joined and promoted by top athletes in a variety of sports and countries have increased the intensity of the debate. And although sport’s capacity to connect people is also widely acknowledged and promoted by media and governing bodies (e.g. Agergaard, 2011; United Nations, 2017), more attention is given to the ugly side of sports-related discrimination and racism at the same time. Racism and discrimination seem deep-rooted in the sports domain, both on a globalized professional level and a more local recreational level (e.g. Azzarito & Harrison, 2008; Bradbury, Lusted & Van Sterkenburg, 2020). This includes explicit as well as implicit forms of racism and discrimination that will both be addressed in this special issue. While the more explicit forms usually receive most (media) attention (e.g. jungle noises or homonegative speech acts in football stadiums, explicit racist or sexist slurs on social media), academic research shows how the more implicit and everyday constructions of difference deserve academic attention as well. They can constitute the wider cultural “breeding ground” for more overt forms of racism to occur (M ű ller, Van Zoonen & De Roode, 2007; Van Sterkenburg, 2020).

2 In recent years, the sports sector has highlighted the various ways in which discrimination occurs on the basis of race and gender, in particular. In this politicized context, we see many initiatives by various actors (governments, sports federations, individuals, EU) to address sports-related discrimination and racism. Recent examples are the anti-discrimination action plans by the Dutch football association KNVB (KNVB, 2023) or by the England and Wales Cricket Board. Despite such anti-discrimination and anti-racism programs, the problem seems persistent and women and people of a racial/ethnic minority background (Meziani, 2013; 2017) continue to face racial or gendered harassment. A recent report by the Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) showed how racism faced by people of African descent within Europe has even increased in the past years (FRA, 2023). Unfortunately, the sports domain is no exception in this regard. Moreover, various forms of discrimination still get only marginal attention from media or policy making such as the discrimination faced by trans athletes in recreational and professional sport (Thorpe, Nelson, Scovel & Veale, 2023). Recent edited collections on race and gender in sports coaching and leadership have also shown how sport structures as well as mediated sport often propagate hegemonic discourses of whiteness and masculinity that may limit opportunities for women and those of a racial minority background to obtain leadership and coaching positions (Bradbury, Lusted & Van Sterkenburg, 2020; Elling, Hovden & Knoppers, 2018). Anti-discrimination initiatives receive some encouragement from the part of sport bodies but there is also resistance amongst portions of the population or amongst those in powerful positions in sport who find the increased attention for racism and discrimination “exaggerated” (Elling, Anselma & Cremers, 2023).

Role of sports media

3 A variety of studies have also shown how the sports media play an important role in reproducing racialized and gendered hierarchies and exclusions. A European wide research program coordinated by Van Sterkenburg (2017) [2] on televised football in England, Poland, Spain and The Netherlands (2018 to 2023) revealed how sport media professionals responsible for football coverage are often unaware (at best) or simply dismissed (at worst) international research evidence that shows how football journalism may incorporate common sense racial/ethnic or gender stereotypes and prejudices (e.g. Bruce, 2004; 2013; Van Sterkenburg, De Heer & Mashigo, 2021). Addressing potential discrimination and racial stereotyping in sports media can trigger defensive reactions amongst (White, male) media professionals (DiAngelo, 2018; Van Sterkenburg, De Heer & Mashigo, 2021).

4 It is, therefore, key to continue monitoring and researching the state of discrimination and racism within European (mediated) sport and beyond. This special issue answers this call. We thereby continue a tradition in the sociology of sport where the scientific community very early on already started to explore the phenomena of racism and discrimination in the world of high-profile sports such as men’s football, basketball, baseball, etc. One can think of early studies done by e.g. Rainville & McCormick (1977); Maguire (1988) M., Khan, L., Ferez and Héas, and many others, who described the segregation logics present in European and American sports. For some of these scholars, experiences of discrimination as related to differential treatment based on visible ethnic/racial or gender markers were the key focus. For others, the more implicit and/or institutionalized forms of in – and exclusion take centre stage (e.g. Duru, 2020; Hylton, 2018; McDonald & Spaaij, 2020, for US, European and Australian contexts). Scholars such as Hylton (2009) have therefore questioned the paradox of the sports world that seems to welcome diversity on the one hand, but that incorporates explicit and implicit discriminatory actions, on the other.

Directions of research in this special issue

5 This special issue wishes to provide food for thought by bringing together relevant studies that aim to shed more light on the problem of discrimination and racism in sport. It aims to better understand the ways in which the field of professional and recreational sports operates and how it is implicated in practices of racism and discrimination. Questions of relevance are, for example: How do the decision-making logics in sports organizations (leagues, clubs, public services, sports industries) produce (or challenge) discourses of discrimination, racism and glass ceilings, glass walls and/or sticky floors? What are the margins for minority ethnic employees of the sports world (coaches, referees, selectors, sports agents, etc.) to maneuver, in particular those of a minority background who face discriminations? What about organizational changes in the framework of anti-discrimination training policies in sport structures? What types of diversity or equality promotion policies are developed in sports organizations as a response to these problems?

6 Related to this, the special issue pays attention to the role of media and the mediated representations of sportsmen and – women. Which role do media play in portraying athletes, and what national, racial or gendered stereotypes may get reproduced in this process? How do athletes who stand up against discrimination feed the collective

7 thought and which role do social and/or mainstream media play in processes of racialization in contemporary media-saturated contexts? Most of the articles in this collection – even as they do not have a focus on the media – will touch on this mediated aspect, while some others will address this element in some more detail.

Articles in the special issue

8 The articles that make up this special issue mainly come from domain of the sociology of sport and the sociology of organizations and work.

9 Cyril Thomas’ article analyzes the evolution of the long-distance running market in France, focusing on the participation of Kenyan athletes. It highlights the growth of these races in the 1970s, calling into question the traditional model, and the gradual arrival of Kenyan athletes on the European circuit in the 1980s. The article highlights the difficulties of access to the market for these athletes, in particular due to economic constraints and the strict control exercised by the Kenyan federation. During the 1990s-2000s, Kenyan athletes became popular amongst European organizers of these events, but this demand was accompanied by notable inequalities in terms of bonuses and treatment compared to French athletes. Organizers even adopted strategies to preserve the participation of local athletes, thus accentuating the disparities. In the post-2005 period, the article highlights a decrease in the participation of Kenyan athletes in French contests, attributing this to a less favorable economic situation. Reductions in bonuses, limited support and increased competition between sports agents have contributed to a precarious market. Some organizers adopt policies that accentuate inequalities, further compromising the situation of foreign athletes, particularly women. The article, thus, highlights the dynamic changes in the long-distance running market in France and exposes the challenges faced by Kenyan athletes, highlighting the emergence of persistent inequalities despite the growing popularity of these competitions.

10 Julie Duflos’ article examines the influence of professional socialization on interns involved in the recruitment process within (sports) companies. It highlights the social pressure exerted on individuals. The analysis also reveals two strategies for circumventing the anti-discrimination legislative framework. The first involves mimicry of candidates during presentations, encouraging them to divulge personal information normally prohibited during interviews. This practice, although subtle, is widely accepted. Mock interviews show a correlation between trainer and candidate presentations, illustrating the persistent influence of mimicry. In summary, the article highlights the tensions between recruitment practices, social pressure, and legal implications, highlighting the complex issues of professional socialization in the context of recruitment.

11 Annabelle Caprais’ article analyzes parliamentary debates on parity in sports governance, focusing on the law for “real equality between women and men”. Discussions focus on the goal of parity, with disagreements over implementation and the existence of a limited pool of female leaders. Proponents of quotas justify this approach by invoking empathetic considerations towards the sporting field and by highlighting the constraints posed by relaying on voluntary actors. French minister Vallaud-Belkacem (Education, Higher Education and Research) intervenes in favor of a compromise with a quota of 40%, putting an end to the controversy. However, the debate shows gaps in its analysis of discriminatory mechanisms and in its absence of an intersectional perspective.

12 Ludivine Brunes embraces the issue of inclusion of trans people in rugby, focusing on the example of the Rebelyons Rugby Club in Lyon. Although the club takes an inclusive approach by allowing players to choose their preferred level of contact, the article highlights the challenges posed by the “contact nature” of rugby. Despite its affiliation with the FS LGBT+ and its PROUD label, the club does not participate in the official competition due to the non-regulatory recognition of the FFR (French Rugby Federation). The article compares policies of World Rugby and the FFR, highlighting the complexities of decisions regarding inclusion in sports. Although the FFR’s decisions are considered progress, the article criticizes its partial and partially discriminatory nature towards certain trans people. The author highlights the need for a broader institutional overhaul to achieve full inclusion. Although new and inclusive sporting practices are welcomed, the article indicates that significant progress will require a deeper questioning of institutional norms and traditions. The article thus highlights positive progress while highlighting the limitations and persistent challenges in the quest for the full inclusion of trans people in rugby.

13 To conclude, Júlia Belas Trindade’s article examines the presence of Black and mixed-race people in Brazilian football, highlighting the role of media and the contrast between the high representation of these groups on the pitch and their underrepresentation among football professionals, such as club managers, managers, coaches, journalists and media commentators. Despite a Brazilian population where approximately 56% identify as Black, racial discrimination persists in football. The text reveals that 41% of professionals involved in sports identify as Black. Additionally, the article highlights racial disparities within the Brazilian journalism industry, with 77.6% of newsroom journalists being White. The author looks at the role of the “Observatoire da Discriminação Racial no Futebol”, created in 2014, which monitors and reports discriminatory episodes in Brazilian football. The Observatory extends its scope beyond racism to include sexism, LGBT+phobia and xenophobia. Black and mixed-race journalists who collaborate with the Observatory share their experiences, highlighting the importance of the organization in the fight against racism in Brazilian sport. The Observatory’s annual reports detail discriminatory episodes, offer contextual analyzes and guide players on denouncing discrimination. Between 2014 and 2021, the Observatory reported more than 300 “alleged racist episodes” in Brazil and abroad, with a significant concentration in the South and Southeast of the country. The article concludes by emphasizing that although the media are a key player in covering such discriminatory episodes, the Observatory plays an essential role in informing, raising awareness and fighting against racial discrimination in Brazilian football. The author highlights the experiences of Black and mixed-race journalists working with the Observatory. These experiences speak to the challenges and discrimination faced by minorities in sports newsrooms. The author emphasizes the essential role of the Observatory in collecting data on discriminatory episodes, its advocacy for anti-racist actions, and the need to raise public awareness through the media. Despite progress, the article highlights that challenges remain. It calls on journalists to support the Observatory by doing their part to combat racism and discrimination in Brazilian sport.

14 These contributions provide an in-depth understanding of the complex dynamics and persistent inequalities, logics of discrimination based on gender, sexual orientation, and race in the fields of sport and mediated sport in France and other nations.