Relationships between life-domain interactions and well-being: a comparison between men and women

Felix Ballesteros-Leiva; Gwénaëlle Poilpot-Rocaboy; Sylvie St-Onge

doi:10.3917/grh.162.0065

Notes

[1]
The authors are grateful to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Université de Rennes 1 (France) for their financial support for the research project this study is part of.

1Work environments are affected by several societal trends, including the globalization of markets and competition, the feminization of the labor force, the increased number of single-parent families, multiple job-holding, and the development of technologies. These changes put pressure on organizations but also on their employees and underlie an explosion of direct and indirect costs, monetary and human, which emanate from problems of psychological distress within organizations and industrialized societies (Allis & O’Driscoll, 2008; Shockley & Singla, 2011). To control these costs, and, in many cases, to attract and retain employees with key skills, employers need to care more about the well-being of their workforce. Addressing this issue is all the more important for organizations as a growing number of their employees express their desire to be involved at work without sacrificing their personal life (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). According to Luthans & Youssef (2004), the well-being of employees should be a core competitive advantage for an organization as it adds value to its brand as an employer.

2Rather than trying to understand employees’ negative attitudes or behaviors (e.g., dissatisfaction, illness, stress) to help reduce or eliminate them, this study adopts a positive psychology perspective by investigating well-being, a key indicator of human self-fulfillment (Seligman, 2012; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Well-being goes beyond the absence of malaise, disease, and ill-being (Linley & Joseph, 2004). It integrates emotional, intellectual, physical, spiritual, and social dimensions that allow people to increase their potential to live, to work effectively, and to contribute to the development of society (Corbin & Lindsey, 1997).

3It is crucial to better understand people’s well-being, given that research has shown that the lower their well-being, the more they are likely to express negative impacts in term of stress, tiredness, lack of commitment towards family and work, and interpersonal relationships whereas a high level of well-being brings positive effects regarding their performance, commitment, and attendance at work (e.g., Ballesteros et al., 2016a; Bentein et al., 2005; Gallagher et al., 2009; Knight & Haslam, 2010). However, as some authors have pointed out, too little attention has been paid to the balance between women’s and men’s life domains and their well-being (Kossek et al., 2014; Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014). A greater understanding of the links between life-domain interaction and people’s well-being appears to be important from an employee’s and an employer’s points of view. Over the years, a growing number of workers wish to achieve both professional success and a satisfactory family life. It appears that employees who are working in organizations that value their life-domain balance exhibit less propensity to leave, are happier, more satisfied, and in better physical and mental health (Burke et al., 2004). Greenhaus and Powell (2012) use the expression “family relatedness” to indicate the extent to which people take their personal situation into account when making professional choices. In addition, it is important to increase understanding of the links between life-domain interactions and people’s well-being because the links between the two life domains are not conflict-ridden only, as the traditional perspective has it; they are also positive, as revealed through the more recent perspective of life-domain enrichments (Ballesteros et al., 2016a).

4The specific purpose of this study is to explore the existence of gender differences in the link between employees’ perceived life-domain interactions and their well-being, given that men and women face traditional subjective and objective role-based pressures (Cloninger et al., 2015; Tremblay, 2012). To the best of our knowledge, no study has compared the effects of positive and negative life-domain interactions upon men’s and women’s psychological and subjective well-being. To date, researchers have confirmed the negative effects of life-domain conflicts upon other emotional states – such as distress, exhaustion, marital dissatisfaction, strain – without comparing men and women (e.g., Aycan & Eskin, 2005; Kinnunen et al., 2006). In addition, although researchers have argued that taking on multiple roles may have positive effects on people’s mental health and well-being (Barnett & Baruch, 1985), the lack of empirical support for this expectation (Mullen et al., 2008) and even more so for a potential gender difference (Rajadhyaksha et al., 2015) is to be deplored. This study also responds to scholars’ call (Boz et al., 2015; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Mullen et al., 2008) asking for research studies to apply the life-domain enrichment and conflict perspective to the study of employees’ well-being. In examining men’s and women’s perceptions of life-domain conflicts and enrichments in both directions, this study also adds to prior research that has focused more on the effects of gender on WL→PL conflicts (Powell & Greenhaus, 2010a), even though PL→WL life-domain conflicts have been found to be more affected by gender (Powell & Greenhaus, 2010b). In their recent literature review, Munn and Greer (2015) conclude that there is a need for future research that focuses on the life-domain experiences of men and women and the ways that men and women experience life-domain conflict and enrichment.

5This article is organized as follows. First, we present the main theoretical perspectives regarding well-being and people’s life-domain interactions. Second, we review conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002), and we propose three research hypotheses concerning the relations between women’s and men’s life-domain interactions and their well-being. Then, the method, measures and statistical procedures, and the results of hypothesis testing are presented. Finally, a discussion of the results indicates their theoretical and managerial relevance as well as their limitations; suggestions for future research are proposed.

6In this paper, we use the term “personal life,” rather than “family life,” to encompass all concerns and activities in this domain such as dependents, spouses, leisure, studies, or community life. Many authors have recently used this expression or “private life” or “home life” for a similar reason (Ballesteros et al., in press; Kempen et al., 2015; Keeney et al., 2013; ten Brummelhuis and Bakker, 2012). We also replace the term “work” by “work life” to denote all concerns and activities in the professional domain such as the job’s responsibilities, subordinates, job travels, representing the organization in the community, or receiving work colleagues at home.

1 – Literature review

7In this section, we present and discuss current knowledge on well-being, perceived life-domain conflicts and enrichments, and the impact of gender on the links between these constructs.

1.1 – Subjective and psychological well-being

8To date, authors have often used the term well-being without defining it, or else they have associated it with other concepts such as happiness, enjoyment, optimism, sense of achievement, faith, passion, “flow”, or life satisfaction (e.g., Carruthers & Hood, 2004). Many authors qualify well-being as being emotional, subjective, or psychological without distinguishing or defining the different terms. They agree, however, that hedonistic and eudemonistic approaches underlie the notion of well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001).

9According to the hedonistic approach (Gallagher et al., 2009), well-being is both an emotional and a cognitive construct (Warr, 2011): its emotional component results from a comparison between people’s negative and positive feelings while its cognitive component corresponds to people’s global satisfaction with life (Diener, 1984; Warr, 1990). The hedonistic perspective focuses on people’s subjective well-being, namely their evaluation of their pleasure (or satisfaction) and their pain (or suffering) in all life domains (Diener, 1984; Ryff, 1989). According to the eudemonistic approach, people should live in agreement with their Daemon, their true nature or their ideal, and seek continuous recognition, acceptance, and the fulfillment of their potential to give sense and orientation to their life (Norton, 1977). Eudemonism posits that well-being is conditioned by two Greek imperatives – know yourself (be self-aware) and become what you are – and that people are never completely satisfied with their life because they always try to develop, reach their goals, and fulfill their potential (Ryan & Deci, 2001). This perspective focuses on the extent to which people believe they live in agreement with their true selves and their values, namely upon their psychological well-being (Waterman, 1993). The debates regarding these two conceptions of well-being (subjective and psychological) have endured over the years (Dagenais-Desmarais & Savoie, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2001). Some researchers argue that both perspectives are related to one another (Ryff & Keyes, 1995) or that they provide for greater understanding of the multiple dimensions of well-being (Dagenais-Desmarais & Savoie, 2012; Ilies et al., 2007). This study is based upon an integrative point of view in the assessment of subjective and psychological well-being.

1.2 – Life-domain conflicts and enrichments

10Life-domain interactions can be analyzed in terms of two perspectives: resource scarcity, which involves conflict between the various roles people play, and resource expansion, based on cohesion or strengthening of these roles.

11On the one hand, the resource scarcity perspective assumes that, as people have a limited supply of time, energy, and attention, they risk depleting their resources and experiencing conflict and strain if they do not successfully manage the multiplicity of roles they assume in many life domains (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Most researchers have focused on life-domain conflicts (Allen et al., 2000) and rely on the definition of a kind of inter-role conflict in which the work life demands and the personal life demands are to some extent incompatible so that participation in one role is made difficult by participation in another role. Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) identify three sources of inter-role conflicts: (1) time-based conflict emerges when the time spent on activities within one role makes it harder to invest time in responsibilities in another role; (2) the strain that develops in one role also affects the energy that people can muster to meet the demands of another role; (3) attitude- and behavior-based conflict may occur because each life domain may require different behaviors from people. Life-domain conflicts are now seen as being bidirectional (Frone et al., 1992; Tetrick and Buffardi, 2006). In this study, the expression “life-domain conflicts” covers the bidirectional processes between work life and personal life roles (WL-PL), whereas the expressions “work life→personal life conflict” (WL→PL conflict) and “personal life → work life conflict” (PL→WL conflict) represent unidirectional processes.

12On the other hand, the resource expansion perspective (Marks, 1977) or the role enhancement perspective (Barnett, 1998) relies on the assumptions of “role accumulation” (Marks, 1977), “facilitation” (Grzywacz & Butler, 2005), “enrichment” (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006), or “positive spillover” (Crouter, 1984). According to Marks (1977), human energy depends upon supply and demand, and people’s body will create the necessary energy or resources to meet the demand when they play multiple roles. The key assumption of this perspective is that the roles people play in one life domain can benefit their roles in another domain (Ruderman et al., 2002) and become enriching experiences (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006) when people manage their roles in a balanced fashion. Hence, according to this view, role strain does not result from incompatible demands arising from multiple roles but rather from people’s perception of inadequate balance among their various roles. According to Carlson et al. (2006), life-domain enrichments can take place at the level of development (competencies, skills), affect (emotions and attitudes), and psychological capital (feelings of trust, safety, and self-esteem). Life-domain enrichments are also considered as being bidirectional: work life improves the quality of personal life, WL→PL enrichment, and personal life involvement improves work-life, PL→WL enrichment.

1.3 – The differences between women’s and men’s life-domain interactions

13To date, two main theoretical perspectives have been put forward to account for the differences between life-domain conflicts and life-domain enrichments as experienced by men and women: the rational and the gender-based role theories.

14The rational perspective posits that the more energy people give to one life-domain or one role, whether work life- or personal life-related, the more likely they are to experience conflict (Gutek et al., 1991). For instance, Greenhaus et al. (1987) confirm that the more time people invest in their work, the more they experience WL→PL conflicts. With respect to the impact of gender, as studies show that women spend more time per week on non-work issues than men do, the theory predicts that women are likely to experience more PL→WL conflicts than men whereas men are likely to experience more WL→PL conflicts than women; this assumption has been empirically supported (e.g., Keith & Schafer, 1984; Staines et al., 1978).

15The gender-based role theory (Gove, 1972; Pleck, 1977) posits that it is important to take into account gender-specific role expectations – about wives/husbands, mothers/fathers, employees/spouses – to understand people’s well-being. Thus, even when women have a similar job and marital status as men, they may experience greater role overload than men because of social expectations or norms that push them to shoulder more responsibilities in the personal domain (e.g., children’s or parents’ care, housework, meals); they then may express feelings of lesser well-being than men. In essence, the social demands on women may represent a barrier to their professional success because they bring women to be more likely than men to believe that their family is suffering from their professional job. A gender-based role perspective posits that even though men and women assert that they value their family more than their work, the traditional role expectations encourage them to place different values on their work and their home responsibilities: men are expected to be more involved in their job, and women are expected to be more involved in their family and housework (Greenhaus et al., 1987; Gutek et al., 1991). Even though the roles assigned to men and women have evolved in many countries over the last decades, the traditional view is still likely to be influencing employees’ perceptions of their life-domain conflicts and enrichments. Essentially, gender-based role expectations may lead men and women to experience a role conflict or a role enrichment different from the one predicted by the rational perspective. For example, women may experience more WL→PL conflicts than men, even though they spend the same amount of time at work, and men may experience more PL→WL conflicts than women, even though they give the same amount of time to their family as women do. Similarly, men may experience less PL→WL enrichment than women, even though they give the same amount of time to their family as women, and women may experience less WL→PL enrichment than men, even though they spend the same amount of time at work.

16To date, studies investigating the mean differences between life-domain conflicts as experienced by men and by women reveal contrasting results (Korabik et al., 2008). Some studies show that men experience significantly more WL→PL conflict than women; others find that women experience more WL→PL conflict or less WL→PL enrichment than men (e.g., Burley, 1995; Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Hill, 2005: Rothbard, 2001); yet other findings indicate that women and men express similar levels of life-domain conflicts (e.g., Barnett & Gareis, 2006). It is worth observing that organizations have greater control over WL→PL conflict than over PL→WL conflict as they are able to adjust features of the workplace only. Research findings appear to show, however, that WL→PL conflict, which is more under their control, is less influenced by gender (Powell & Greenhaus, 2010a), whereas PL→WL conflict, which organizations have little control over, is more influenced by gender (Powell & Greenhaus, 2010b). With respect to life-domain enrichment, studies are rare and also show diverse results. Rothbard (2001) finds that men experience WL→PL enrichment while women experience PL→WL enrichment, but the gender differences regarding life-domain enrichment have also been found to be rather limited (Aryee et al., 2005).

1.4 – The gender impact on the relationship between life-domain interactions and well-being

17The COR model (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002) appears to be the most influential theory explaining people’s well-being through examining how they react to environmental stressors. This theory posits that individuals strive to acquire, maintain, protect, and build resources, and stress occurs when their resources are threatened with loss or lost when they fail to gain resources after substantive resource investment, or when they lose an expected gain in resources because they engage in efforts to avoid further loss. Consequently, people with greater resources are less likely to have both their physical and psychological well-being negatively affected by the drain of resources that occurs during stressful situations. According to ten Brummelhuis and Bakker (2012), stressors can be defined as contextual demands, namely physical, emotional, social, or organizational characteristics of the social context that require sustained physical and mental efforts in a particular sphere. This view is in line with the resource scarcity perspective, which postulates that people risk depleting their resources if they do not successfully manage their various life-domain roles, given that they have a limited supply of time, energy, and attention (Kahn et al., 1964).

18However, the need to manage many life-domain roles may improve the resources individuals require for their well-being. Such an expansion perspective focuses upon the positive reciprocal links between life domains (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). According to this view, human energy depends on supply and demand, and if people assume multiple roles, their body has to create the necessary energy or resources to meet the demand (Marks, 1977) at the level of development, affect, and capital (Carlson et al., 2006). ten Brummelhuis and Bakker (2012) identify various subtypes of personal resources such as physical (e.g., energy, health), psychological (e.g., focus, attention), intellectual (e.g., competencies, skills, knowledge, experience), affective (e.g., optimistic mood, feeling of fulfillment), and capital resources (e.g., money, time).

19One corollary of COR theory is that “those with greater resources are less vulnerable to resource loss and more capable of orchestrating resource gain. Conversely, those with fewer resources are more susceptible to resource damage and less capable of resource gain” (Hobfoll, 2011, p. 349). Consequently, it is expected that experiencing life-domain conflicts leads to a loss of time, energy, and behavioral resources (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) that may be essential for coping with stress-related variables (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Alternatively, it is expected that life-domain enrichments would bring a replacement of developmental, affective, and time efficiency resources (Carlson et al., 2006) with a positive impact on people’s well-being.

20To date, one meta-analysis supports the negative impact of life-domain conflicts on subjective health (McNall et al., 2010). From the perspective of life-domain enrichments, one study confirms that employees who express greater life-domain enrichments are in better physical health (Williams et al., 2006). The conclusion of the study is that when individuals have a “solid resource reservoir”, they are better equipped to handle stress. In other words, people with resources are less likely to encounter stressful circumstances that negatively influence their well-being.

21One literature review (Mullen et al., 2008) and meta-analyses (e.g., Allen et al., 2000; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; McNall et al., 2010) confirm the links between life-domain conflicts and many negative psychological feelings such as psychological distress or exhaustion, depression, stress, dissatisfaction with life, or subjective health (e.g., Brotheridge & Lee, 2005; Demerouti et al., 2005; Frone et al., 1997; Hill, 2005), but no studies have yet investigated the impact of life-domain conflicts on people’s well-being. However, a handful of findings (e.g., Allen et al., 2000; Brotheridge & Lee, 2005; Kinnunen et al., 2006; Noor, 2003; Ruderman et al., 2002) show that people’s well-being is more negatively related to their perceived WL→PL conflict than to their perceived PL→WL conflict.

22Similarly, as summarized in McNall et al.’s meta-analysis (2010), a very small number of studies have examined the effects of people’s life-domain enrichments on their psychological states such as their perceived quality of life or mental health (Demerouti et al., 2005; Grzywacz & Bass, 2003) or well-being (e.g., Allis & O’Driscoll, 2008; Kinnunen et al., 2006). Results tend to show that people’s well-being is more related to their perceived life-domain enrichments than on the absence of perceived life-domain conflicts. Hence, the perception of enrichment (particularly, PL→WL enrichment) acts as a protective factor that mitigates the effects of life-domain conflicts upon mental health. Similarly, Williams et al. (2006) have found that perceived life-domain enrichments are related to improved physical health.

23To our knowledge, however, no researchers have explored whether the link between life-domain interactions (either conflicts or enrichments) and well-being varies between men and women. Based upon the previous literature review and the cumulated empirical evidence, it is proposed that life-domain conflicts will affect men’s and women’s well-being in a similar manner with no gendered statistical difference. However, we propose that both types of life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) will have a statistically significant greater positive effect upon men’s subjective and psychological well-being than upon women’s well-being. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that studies have shown that (1) being married is more beneficial to men’s than to women’s mental health (Gove, 1972); (2) the presence of dependent children has a positive effect on men’s well-being whereas it has a negative effect on women’s well-being (Rantanen et al., 2005); and (3) that multitasking for mothers, which involves more housework and childcare, is associated with an increase in negative emotions and stress whereas for fathers, multitasking is not a negative experience (Offer & Schneider, 2011). Hence, we propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Both types of life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WL) appear to have a statistically similar negative effect upon men’s and women’s subjective and psychological well-being.
Hypothesis 2: Both types of life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) appear to have a statistically significant greater positive effect upon men’s subjective and psychological well-being than upon women’s well-being.

1.5 – The respective impacts of life-domain conflicts and life-domain enrichment on men’s and women’s well-being

24We aim to deepen the analysis by investigating the respective impacts of conflict and enrichment among life domains upon men’s and women’s well-being. According to COR theory (Hobfoll, 2011), resource loss is disproportionally more salient than resource gain (Principle 1), and people must invest resources to acquire resources and protect themselves from losing resources (Principle 2). Consequently, faced with the salient loss of resources generated by life-domain conflicts, men and women should try to gain and invest resources through various life-domain enrichments. A few studies have analyzed the relative contributions of life-domain conflicts and enrichments on different outcomes (van Steenbergen et al., 2007; Wiese et al., 2010). For example, van Steenbergen et al. (2007) confirm that PL→WL enrichments contribute to job performance, affective commitment, and job satisfaction over and above the effects of WL→PL conflicts. Based upon Herzberg et al.’s (1959) motivation theory, Kempen et al. (2015) propose that low life-domain conflicts function as a hygiene factor preventing negative outcomes, whereas life-domain enrichments operate as a motivator factor that can predict positive outcomes. Their results confirm that WL→PL enrichments contribute to job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and the accomplishment of role-related expectations over and above the contribution of WL→PL conflicts. Consequently, based upon COR theory, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3. Life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) account for the subjective well-being and the psychological well-being of both women and men over and above the influence of their life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WL).

2 – Method

25Data collection took place through an electronic questionnaire distributed to the members of two professional bodies in Canada. Only full-time employees were eligible to complete the survey; others were invited to forward the survey to people they knew who met the criterion. The sample was composed of 629 human resources professionals and 169 engineers and included 62% women. On average, respondents were 40 years old and worked 42 hours a week. Almost 98% were university graduates, 70% had at least one dependent (children or elderly people), and 74% had a spouse holding a remunerated job. As far as marital status is concerned, 41% were married, 43% lived in a common-law union, 12% were single, and almost 4% were divorced.

26Well-being was measured from hedonistic and eudemonistic perspectives. On the one hand, the hedonistic approach (Gallagher et al., 2009), the most common, focuses on subjective well-being, namely people’s positive measure of mental health resulting from an assessment of all aspects of their life in terms of satisfaction towards life do- mains (Diener, 1984; Ryff, 1989). To measure subjective well-being, we used Diener’s Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), a short 5-item instrument that measures people’s general judgments of satisfaction with their life (α = 0.84) (Diener et al., 1985) through statements such as “The conditions of my life are excellent”. The scale confirmatory analysis indicates that all adjustment indicators are found in the acceptance levels [Goodness-of-fit index (GIF) = 0.99; Comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.99; Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06; X² = 17.2(4) p < 0.05]. On the other hand, the eudemonistic approach focuses on people’s psychological well-being, namely the extent to which they believe they are true to themselves and their values (Waterman, 1993). To measure psychological well-being, we used a reduced, 9-item version (α = 0.68) concerning self-acceptance, personal growth, and life goals from the original 84-item scale of Ryff and Keyes (1995). Examples of statements include the following: “When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned”, “For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growing.” The factor analysis shows satisfactory adjustment levels (GIF = 0.98; CFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.07; X² = 64.1 (17) p < 0.05).

27This study considers life-domain interactions in terms of two perspectives: resource scarcity and resource expansion. On the one hand, life-domain conflicts were measured in two directions (WL→PL and PL→WL conflicts) using the Survey Work-home Interaction-NijmeGen (SWING) instrument developed by Geurts et al. (2005). The WL→PL conflict scale comprised nine statements (α = 0.91) such as “Your work obligations make it difficult for you to feel relaxed at home”. The PL→WL conflict scale comprised four statements (α = 0.85) such as “Your work takes up time that you would have liked to spend with your spouse/family/friends”. On the other hand, life-domain enrichment was also measured both ways through both SWING measures: WL→PL and PL→WL enrichment scales used five statements (α = 0.83, α = 0.82) such as “You are better able to interact with your spouse/family/friends as a result of the things you have learned at work”, “You manage your time at work more efficiently because you have to do that as well at home”. The confirmatory analysis shows satisfactory adjustment for both conflict (X² = 56.6(15) p < 0.05; X² = 13.3 (2) p < 0.01; GIF = 0.98, 0.98; CFI = 0.99, 0.99; RMSEA = 0.06, 0.06) and enrichment measures (X² = 3.9(1) p < 0.05; X² = 5.1 (1) p < 0.05; GIF = 0.998, 0.997; CFI = 0.998, 0.997; RMSEA = 0.06, 0.07).

28For all statements measuring well-being and life-domain conflict and enrichment, respondents had to provide answers on a scale ranging from 1 “Completely disagree” to 5 “Completely agree”. We also measured demographic variables such as age (number of years), gender (1 = male, 2 = female), marital status (1 = single, 2 = married, 3 = divorced, 4 = widow/er, and 5 = common-law union), the weekly number of hours worked, the number of years of work (on a scale ranging from 1 = less than 1 year to 5 = over 10 years), the level of education (1 = secondary, 2 = college, 3 = university undergraduate, and 4 = university graduate), and the number of dependents.

29Table 1 shows the correlations between all research variables. The data do not suffer from multicollinearity since the results of the analysis for the variance inflation factor (VIF) are well below the recommended threshold of 4 (Cohen et al., 2013). These results show that, for both men and women, perceptions of both types of conflict (WL→PL and PL→WL) correlate negatively with both types of well-being (psychological and subjective). For men, both types of life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) are positively correlated with both dimensions of well-being (psychological and subjective). For women, both types of life-domain enrichment (WL→PL and PL→WL) are positively correlated with psychological well-being, though only their perceptions of WL→PL enrichment positively influence subjective well-being.

Table 1

Relations among all research variables (Pearson correlation, r)

Men 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Psychological well-being 1 2. Subjective well-being .59** 1 3. WL→PL conflict –.24** –.34** 1 4. PL→WL conflict –.34** –.35** .44** 1 5. WL→PL enrichment .26** .28** –.04 –.03 1 6. PL→WL enrichment .20** .25** –.02 .02 .54** 1 7. Age –.07 –.05 –.01 –.14* .06 .05 1 8. No of dependents –.05 .04 .17** .16** .04 .12* .06 1 9. Weekly work hours .01 –.02 .30** .04 –.02 –.01 .12* .04 1 10. Education level .07 .01 .02 –.07 .09 .09 .03 .07 –.06 1 Women 1. Psychological well-being 1 2. Subjective well-being .57** 1 3. WL→PL conflict –.13** –.28** 1 4. PL→WL conflict –.22** –.25** .27** 1 5. WL→PL enrichment .12** .13** –.18** .03 1 6. PL→WL enrichment .05 .14** –.09* .13** .57** 1 7. Age –.03 –.02 .07 .01 .14** –.02 1 8. No of dependents .03 .18** .09* .06 –.00 .15** .09 1 9. Weekly work hours .09* .01 .40** –.06 .01 –.02 .19** .03 1 10. Education level .05 .03 .06 –.01 .00 –.00 .12** .09* .10* 1

Relations among all research variables (Pearson correlation, r)

** p ≤ 0.01; * p ≤ 0.05

3 – Results

3.1 – The differences between women’s and men’s life-domain interactions through t-test analyses

30Table 2 shows the results of the t-tests designed to establish whether the mean scores of the answers provided by the male and female participants are statistically significant. These results show that women and men express similar average WL→PL conflicts, but women report experiencing an average WL→PL conflict that is statistically higher than men’s. However, on average, men and women experience WL→PL and PL→WL enrichments of similar scope.

Table 2

Analysis of the differences between men and women (t-tests)

Women(N = 495) Mean, SD Men (N = 303) Mean, SD Total (N = 798) Mean, SD t – test Psychological well-being 4.21 4.15 4.19 –1.61 .45 .49 .46 Subjective well-being 3.90 3.99 3.96 –1.78 .65 .60 .62 WL→PL conflicts 2.56 2.49 2.54 –1.09 .91 .93 .93 PL→WL conflicts 1.55 1.71 1.61 3.03** .68 .81 .74 WL→PL enrichments 2.93 2.82 2.89 –.17 .94 .90 .92 PL→WL enrichments 3.12 3.02 3.08 –1.42 .931 .939 .93 No of dependents 1.23 1.58 1.36 4.32** 1.04 1.25 1.13 Weekly work hours 42.03 42.9 42.3 2.13* 5.96 6.20 6.0 Age 38.6 41.3 39.6 3.90** 9.31 10.0 9.56 Salary 2.55 3.03 2.73 7.28** .83 .98 .92 Education level 4.26 4.33 4.29 1.86 .45 .52 .484

Analysis of the differences between men and women (t-tests)

** p ≤ 0.01; * p ≤ 0.05; SD : Standard deviation

31Other results shown in Table 2 are worth noting. For example, it appears that there is no distinction between men and women regarding their average psychological and subjective well-being. In addition, for women as for men, the WL→PL conflict levels are higher than those of PL→WL conflict that were found by other researchers (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Geurts et al., 2003; Mullen et al., 2008). One possible explanation for this finding could be the greater permeability of the personal life boundaries compared to those of work life (Frone et al., 1997). Explanations for people letting their work life impinge upon their personal life include the development of new technologies that enable people to work from home, the need to meet short-term goals at work, and the fact that professional responsibilities are evaluated and remunerated (Guérin et al., 1997).

3.2 – The gender impact on the relationship between life-domain interactions and well-being through moderated multiple regression analyses

32Table 3 shows the results of the multiple regressions seeking to analyze the relative influence of the life-domain conflicts and enrichments perceived upon both measures of well-being for men, women, and the total sample. Sections 1a and 1b show that, after introducing the control variables (age, number of dependents, number of weekly work hours), (1) both life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WL) are negatively linked with people’s subjective and psychological well-being; and (2) whereas perceived WL→PL enrichment is positively linked with both types of well-being (subjective and psychological), perceived PL→WL enrichment is only statistically positively linked with subjective well-being. The other sections of Table 3 show the results of the analyses of the moderating effect of gender on the links examined, conducted with the SPSS plugin PROCESS 2.03 (Hayes, 2013).

Table 3

The effects of life-domain conflicts and enrichments upon subjective well-being and psychological well-being

Subjective well-being Psychological well-being Part 1a Part 2a Women Men Women Men Total Total Women Men Women Men Total Total Step 1 Age –.04 –.05 –.04 –.13* –.05 –.08* –.05 –.07 –.07 –1.5* –.06 –.10* Dependents .18* .05 .20** .11* .12** .15** .28 .05 .05 .00 .06 .10* Weekly work hours .01 –.02 .11* .09 –.00 .09* .10 –.02 .13* .07 –.01 .03 Step 2 WL→PL conflict – – –.28** –.27** – –.26** – – –.11* –.12 – –.10* PL→WL conflict – – –.19** –.27** – –.23** – – –.19** –.31** – –.25** WL→PL enrichment .04 .20** – .11* – – .13** .20** – .16** PL→WL enrichment .09 .14* – .11* – – .02 .10 – .03 Part 1b Part 2b Determining factors Coeff SE T Coeff SE T Coeff SE T Coeff SE T Constant 3.39 .16 19.9 4.01 .16 24.71 3.84 .132 28.8 4.12 .12 33.4 Gender .13 .04 3.16 .06 .044 1.26 .07 .03 2.03 .02 .03 .67 WL→PL conflict –.25 .03 –10.52 – – – –.11 .02 –5.91 – – – WL→PL conflict * Gender .07 .05 1.44 – – – .06 .04 1.66 – – – PL→WL conflict – – – –.26 .03 –8.91 – – – –.17 .02 –7.74 PL→WL conflict * Gender – – – .09 .06 1.52 – – – .07 .04 1.55 Weekly work hours .01 .00 3.68 .00 .00 –.02 .010 .00 3.74 .01 .03 1.84 Age –.00 .02 –1.57 .00 .00 –1.85 –.00 .00 –1.84 .00 .02 –2.25 Dependents –.09 .02 5.00 .09 .02 4.66 –.10 .02 1.46 .01 .01 .80 Conditional effect WL→PL conflict PL→WL conflict WL→PL conflict PL→WL conflict Men Women (B = –0.29**) (B = –0.23**) Men Women (B = –0.31**) (B = –0.22**) Men Women (B = –0.49**) (B = –0.09) Men Women (B = –0.32**) (B = –0.14**) R : .38; R–Sq : .14; Δ R–Sq : .002, ns R : .34; R–Sq : .12; Δ R–Sq : .003, ns R : .23; R–Sq : .06; Δ R–Sq : .003, ns R : .30; R–Sq : .09; Δ R–Sq : .003, ns

** p ≤ 0.01; * p ≤ 0.05

Subjective well–being Psychological well–being Part 1c Part 2c Determining factors Coeff SE T Coeff SE T Coeff SE T Coeff SE T Constant 4.00 .17 23.91 3.98 .17 23.65 3.80 .18 20.69 3.79 .19 20.42 Gender .08 .05 1.69 .08 .05 1.76 .05 .03 1.65 .06 .04 1.72 WL→PL enrichment .13 .02 5.58 – – – .09 .02 5.07 – – – WL→PL enrich * Gender –.11 .05 –2.22 – – – –.08 .04 –2.14 – – – PL→WL enrichment – – – .12 .02 4.93 – – – .054 .02 3.04 PL→WL enrich * Gender – – – –.09 .05 –1.87 – – – –.08 .04 –2.21 Weekly work hours .01 .00 .13 .01 .00 .10 .00 .00 1.72 .01 .00 1.71 Age –.00 .00 –1.63 –.00 .00 –1.17 –.05 .03 1.33 –.05 .03 1.38 Dependents .07 .19 3.38 .06 .02 2.77 –.00 .01 –.33 –.01 .02 –.62 Conditional effect WL→PL enrichment PL→WL enrichment WL→PL enrichment PL→WL enrichment Men (B = –0.20**) Women (B = –0.09*) Men (B = –0.17**) Women (B = –0.08*) Men (B = .14**) Women (B = 0.06*) Men (B = 0.11*) Women (B = 0.02,ns) R : .25 R–Sq : .06; Δ R–Sq : .02* R : .23; R–Sq : .05; Δ R–Sq : .004, ns R : .22 R–Sq : .05; Δ R–Sq : .01* R : .17; R–Sq : .03; Δ R–Sq : .01*f

** p ≤ 0.01; * p ≤ 0.05
enrich = enrichment

The effects of life-domain conflicts and enrichments upon subjective well-being and psychological well-being

33Sections 1b and 2b of Table 3 confirm Hypothesis 1: after controlling for the effect of the control variables, both types of life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WL) have a statistically similar negative effect upon men’s and women’s subjective and psychological well-being. On the one hand, the subjective well-being of women and men is significantly negatively affected by both types of conflict between life domains (WL→PL and PL→WL), and the moderation test and the variation of R² show no gender differences (ΔR-Sq: .003, ns; ΔR-Sq: .002, ns). On the other hand, psychological well-being is significantly negatively affected by (1) the perceived PL→WL conflict with no gender-based significant difference (ΔR-Sq: 003, ns; ΔR-Sq: 003, ns), (2) women’s WL→PL conflict (β = -0.11*) but not men’s WL→PL conflict (β = -0.12, ns), but this gender-based difference is not statistically significant (ΔR-Sq: .003, ns).

34Sections 1c and 2c of Table 3 confirm Hypothesis 2: as compared with women’s, men’s psychological and subjective well-being is more positively linked to their life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL). After controlling for the effect of the control variables, men’s subjective well-being appears to be significantly positively linked with their WL→PL enrichment and PL→WL enrichment (β = 0.20 p ≤ 0.01, β = 0.14 p ≤ 0.05). This is not the case for women’s subjective well-being (β = 0.04, ns, β = 0.09, ns), and the variation in the R² of the regression test confirms this gender difference for both types of life-domain enrichments (ΔR-Sq: .01 p ≤ 0.01; ΔR-Sq: .004, ns). Furthermore, men’s psychological well-being appears to be more significantly positively linked to their WL→PL enrichment (β = 0.20, p ≤ 0.01) than women’s subjective well-being (β = 0.13, p ≤ 0.01), and the variation in the R² of the regression test confirms this gender-based difference (ΔR-Sq: .01 p ≤ 0.01). Moreover, if men’s and women’s psychological well-being appears not to be significantly positively linked to their perception of PL→WL enrichment (men: β = 0.10, ns; women: β = 0.02, ns), the moderation test and the variation in the R² of the regression test confirm that the positive link is statistically smaller for women than for men (ΔR-Sq: .01 p ≤ 0.01). Figure 1 illustrates all three gendered positive significant links between life-domain enrichments (WL→PL or PL→WL) and both types of well-being (psychological and subjective).

Figure 1

Links between life-domain enrichments (WL→PL or PL→WL) and subjective and psychological well-being that are statistically different between men and women

3.3 – The respective impacts of life-domain conflicts and enrichments on men’s and women’s well-being through hierarchical regression analyses

35Table 4 shows the results of the hierarchical regression analyses seeking to examine the relative influence of the perceived life-domain conflicts and enrichments upon both measures of well-being for women and men. Hypothesis 3 appears to be confirmed: life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) account for the subjective well-being and the psychological well-being of women and men over and above the influence of their life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WL). After the control variables are entered (Step 1), women’s life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) account for variation in their subjective well-being (Step 3, ΔR² = 0.009 p < 0.05) over and above what is accounted for by their life-domain conflicts (Step 2, ΔR² = 0.131, p < 0.01). In addition, after the control variables are entered (Step 1), men’s life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) account for variation in their subjective well-being (Step 3, ΔR² = 0.083, p < 0.01) over and above what is accounted for by their life-domain conflicts (Step 2, ΔR² = 0.194, p < 0.01).

Table 4

Relations between life-domain interactions and well-being: results of hierarchical regression analyses among women and men subsamples

Subjective well-being Psychological well-being Men Adjusted R 2 ΔR 2 Adjusted R 2 ΔR 2 Control variables Step 1 -.005 .005 .002 .002 Life-domain conf. Step 2 .189 .194** .127** .125 Life-domain enrich. Step 3 .272 .083** .194** .069 Subjective well-being Psychological well-being Women Adjusted R 2 ΔR 2 Adjusted R 2 ΔR 2 Control variables Step 1 .026 .026** .005 .005 Life-domain conf. Step 2 .157 .131** .062** .057 Life-domain enrich. Step 3 .166 .009* .072* .010

Relations between life-domain interactions and well-being: results of hierarchical regression analyses among women and men subsamples

R²: explanation rate; ΔR²: change in explanation rate in each step. Control variables: age, weekly work hours, and dependents. ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05
conf.: conflict, enrich.: enrichment

36With regard to psychological well-being, after the control variables are entered (Step 1), women’s life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) account for variation in their psychological well-being (Step 3, ΔR² = 0.072, p < 0.05) over and above what is accounted for by their life-domain conflicts (Step 2, ΔR² = 0.062, p < 0.01). Regarding men’s life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL), after the control variables are entered (Step 1), the life-domain enrichments account for variation in their psychological well-being (Step 3, ΔR² = 0.069, p < 0.01) over and above what is accounted for by their life-domain conflicts (Step 2, ΔR ² = 0.125, p < 0.01).

4 – Discussion

37 This study of the influence of gender upon the links between life-domain interactions (conflicts and enrichments) and two types of well-being (subjective and psychological) has yielded valuable results that are well worth exploring further.

38First, it is worth noting that the t-test mean scores comparison shows that even though there is no difference between men and women regarding their average WL→PL conflict, men significantly express more average PL→WL conflict than women. From a rational perspective, this result may be surprising, since men in our research sample spend significantly more time at work than women (t-test: 2.13, p < 0.01). However, from the perspective of gender-based role theory, regardless of their number of working hours per week, men – whose role and self-expectations are more work-oriented – are more likely than women to believe that their personal life interferes more with their work life. This result is also consistent with identity theory, which posits that the self is organized around social roles: the higher the salience of a role, the more it influences people’s behavior and their sense of personal meaning and well-being (Stryker & Burke, 2000). Considering our sample, we might think that men give higher salience to work than women because they allow more time to this role, in line with traditional gender roles. As explained by Boz et al. (2015), when men experience PL→WL conflict, which prevents them from functioning well in the work role that is more salient, they find it more difficult to deal with this problem (Shockley & Singla, 2011). Furthermore, the life-domain facilitation model (Wayne et al., 2007) posits that, for socialization reasons in line with the gender-based role model, men and women are also likely to use resources differently. Thus, the fact that it could appear more acceptable for women than for men to benefit from informal and formal organizational support policies (flexible working hours, telework, part-time work, etc.) might help explain why women perceive they attend better to their family needs and responsibilities, and they significantly express less average PL→WL conflict than men. In addition, men might be less likely to use family-friendly policies due to fear of social stigmatization (Kossek et al., 2006). These explanations are coherent with Clark et al.’s (2015) study results showing that certain types of support may benefit women and men differently.

39Second, the t-test mean scores comparison between men and women shows that men and women appear to experience similar average WL→PL and PL→WL enrichments, with no statistically significant differences. Both men and women tend to perceive the same reciprocal positive enrichment between their personal life and work life domains in both directions. Consequently, it seems that perceptions of life-domain enrichments, either WL→PL or PL→WL enrichments, between men and women are less likely to be understood through the lens of the rational, the gender-based, or the identity theories that are used to investigate or understand some gender differences or particularities regarding life-domain conflicts.

40Third, our results confirm Hypothesis 1, namely the significant, nongendered negative links between life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WLs) and both types of well-being (subjective and psychological) for both men and women. These results are consistent with those of previous studies showing a negative effect of life-domain conflicts upon satisfaction with life (Allen et al., 2000; Geurts et al., 2003; Noor, 2003) or mental health (Ballesteros et al., in press; McNall et al., 2010), though extending their scope to two dimensions of well-being little investigated to date and analyzing the potential statistical difference between these links between men and women.

41Fourth, the results confirm Hypothesis 2: as compared with women’s, men’s psychological and subjective well-being is statistically significantly more positively linked to their life-domain enrichments (WL→PL as well as PL→WL). This gender impact on the relationships between life-domain enrichments and well-being is coherent with the findings of prior studies that have shown that (1) the presence of dependent children has a positive effect on men’s well-being whereas it has a negative effect on women’s well-being (Rantanen et al., 2005); (2) being married is more beneficial to men’s than to women’s mental health (Gove, 1972); and (3) multitasking for mothers, which involves more housework and childcare, is associated with an increase in negative emotions and stress whereas for fathers, multitasking is not a negative experience (Offer & Schneider, 2011). These results also lead to a few observations regarding the two measures of well-being, namely people’s satisfaction towards life in general (subjective well-being) and sense of accomplishment (psychological well-being). Our results show that perceived enrichment between life domains contributes more to understanding men’s and women’s general sense of accomplishment (psychological well-being) than their satisfaction towards life and that these relationships are statistically stronger among men than women.

42Fifth, the results confirm Hypothesis 3, namely the expectation that for women as well as for men, life-domain enrichments account for variation in their subjective well-being over and above what is explained by their life-domain conflicts. Findings regarding the respective and relative impacts of conflict and enrichment between life domains upon women’s and men’s well-being are congruent with Principle 1 of COR theory, which posits the primacy of resource loss: it is psychologically more harmful to individuals to lose resources than it is helpful for them to gain resources. The role of loss salience is a well-established notion within cognitive psychology and has also been applied in organizational psychology (Halbesleben et al., 2014). This study confirms the role of loss salience in understanding men’s and women’s well-being. It appears that losses at work resulting from higher life-domain conflicts will have more impact than similarly valued gains coming from perceived life-domain enrichments. As life-domain conflicts lead to resource loss, which is more salient than resource gain, they contribute more to explaining women’s and men’s well-being than life-domain enrichments.

4.1 – Implications for practice

43These results have several practical implications. For employers, it is important to adopt actions aimed at reducing men’s and women’s life-domain conflicts to improve their global life satisfaction and their feelings of self-accomplishment. The similar negative statistical links between life-domain conflicts (WL→PL and PL→WL) and men’s and women’s well-being (either subjective or psychological) should motivate employers to support all their employees in this respect. The primacy of resource loss principle of COR theory suggests that employment-related resource gains take on more significance in the context of resource losses (Halbesleben et al., 2014). In sum, the more men and women experience life-domain conflicts, the more employers should offer them support in various forms. To maximize workers’ well-being, it is necessary to examine the policies concerning the organization of work and of working time to enable female and male workers to balance work life and personal life domains successfully.

44Nevertheless, even though life-domain conflicts remain the primary predictor of men’s and women’s well-being, our results underscore the need to consider both their life-domain enrichments (WL→PL and PL→WL) to optimize their subjective well-being. Principle 2 of COR theory posits that people must invest resources to gain resources and protect themselves or to recover from losing resources. Hence, whether resources are defined as “things that people value, with an emphasis on objects, states, conditions, and other things” (Hobfoll, 1989, p. 519) or as “anything perceived by the individual to help attain his or her goals” (Halbesleben et al., 2014, p. 1338), employers and employees should identify and use them to reduce life-domain conflicts and to promote life-domain enrichments. In the working place, personal life might well constitute an asset rather than a handicap, even if the prospect of the mutual conflict of professional and personal lives appears to be more important to employees’ life satisfaction than the likelihood of enrichment. Consequently, while recruiting male or female candidates with a spouse and children can be perceived at first sight as a burden, this personal life environment might be likely to contribute to both male or female workers’ well-being, but even more so for men. Hence, to maximize employees’ well-being, organizations need to consider both reducing life-domain conflicts and improving their employees’ perception of WL→PL and PL→WL enrichment through a variety of means (e.g., organization of working hours and workplace, staff supervision, work characteristics).

45According to Halbesleben et al. (2014), psychological resources are numerous: job security, rewards, job characteristics, development, participation, social support, recovery periods, family-friendly policies, emotional intelligence and other psychological traits. Such resources could be given by employers, supervisors, and colleagues under different forms (i.e., financial, mentoring, working hours, telework) (Allen, 2001; Guérin et al., 1997; Lazarova et al., 2015). It is also particularly important to adopt practices aimed at reducing employees’ life-domain conflicts and increasing their life-domain enrichments. These actions involve asking for more support at home from their spouses and dependents or even paying for services (e.g., housekeeping). Employees might also ask for more support at work from their supervisors, colleagues, and employer and use work-family policies when in place. Investing more time and resources in sports, leisure, or other personal activities should also be beneficial. It is thus necessary to continue the preliminary research on this topic (e.g., Grzywacz & Butler, 2005; McNall et al., 2010). This recommendation is in line with social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), which posits that if employees believe that their employer is helping them integrate their professional and personal obligations, they will feel more obliged to adopt improved attitudes and behavior at work to meet a norm of reciprocity.

4.2 – Limitations and future research

46This study has limitations. First, it follows a cross-cutting approach, whereas only a longitudinal approach could confirm the causal links between the variables under investigation, which, to date, has seldom been used in studies focusing on life-domain conflicts and enrichments (Steinmetz et al., 2008). Moreover, a social desirability bias is likely to be found in questionnaire answers, even though the results of measurement scales reliability testing have shown that the risk was limited. Even though we were able to control the immediate variables such as age, gender, or work hours, the effects of contextual characteristics – particularly management practices and social support – were not taken into account.

47Although the number of respondents is important, it should also be noted that they were all members of two professional bodies, mainly human resources counselors and engineers. Tremblay (2012) observes that perceptions regarding life-domain interactions are influenced by the objective characteristics of situations and working conditions specific to various professions and particularly by expectations and work relations that are also socially constructed by professionals and distorted by specific social gender relations. Hence, the study’s findings need to be confirmed with a sample of different worker profiles or analyzed according to specific professional categories.

48Furthermore, this study has examined the gender dimension through measuring it as a physical or biological dichotomous variable (i.e., men or women) as a proxy for other gender aspects, in particular gender ideology, which is linked to cultural and sociological factors that we need to take into account to better understand life-domain interactions (Korabik et al., 2008; Powell & Greenhaus, 2010a). The distinction between men and women may, however, provide an incomplete view of the issue of life-domain interactions and lead to unclear and inconsistent results if interpersonal factors are not taken into account together with sociological and cultural factors (Rajadhyaksha et al., 2015).

49While prior studies have shown that women perceive a higher level of life-domain enrichments than men (Aryee et al., 2005) or that men express more WL→ PL enrichment and women more PL→WL enrichment (Rothbard, 2001), future studies should explore the significant higher levels of perceived life-domain enrichments among men than women and the greater impact of perceived life-domain enrichments on men’s well-being than on women’s. The latter result appears to be fully in line with prior empirical evidence. For example, some studies’ results confirm that maternity has an adverse effect upon women’s career opportunities, but a stimulating effect on men’s (Feugen et al., 2008) and that, unlike working mothers, working fathers are assessed as better parents and more competent on a professional level (Ismail, 2008) ; another finding is that being responsible for a child is more related to women’s than to men’s life-domain conflict (Hill et al., 2004). From a theoretical point of view, many studies confirm that building a family has a more positive effect on men’s career progression than on women’s, given multiple environmental, organizational, and individual variables (Charles & Davies 2000; Ezzedeenm 2009; Kirchmeyer, 1998; Naschberger et al., 2012) and such concepts as the glass ceiling (Broadbridge & Hearn, 2008; Powell & Graves, 2003) or the labyrinth of leadership (Eagly et Carli, 2007) for women in management positions.

50Moreover, management-level careers tend to be linear for men whereas women managers’ careers are characterized by interruptions and exits (Alimo-Metcalf, 1995; Kumra & Vinnicombe, 2008; Lyness & Schrader, 2006; Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005; Ohlott et al., 1994). Thus, according to social role theory (Eagly, 1987), people’s observation of the roles, power, status, and resources assigned to men and women in society (i.e., the labor market) will shape their beliefs, personality, and behaviors and contribute to the development of what is termed “gender ideology” (Davis & Greenstein, 2009), which researchers need to examine. Given the significant impact of life-domain interactions (either conflicts and enrichments) on well-being, it appears important to answer the call for examining gender differences in both the availability and usage of various types of organizational support (i.e., flextime, part-time, telework) or sources of support (e.g., supervisor, co-workers) (Ballesteros et al., 2016b; Carlson et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2015; Parasuraman & Greenhaus, 2002).

51Future research should also make use of different methods and data sources. For example, the combination of data from the organization, supervisors, co-workers, and family members could increase understanding of the dynamics between life-domain interactions and men’s and women’s well-being. Studies could explore, through interviews, why the links between life-domain enrichments and psychological or subjective well-being differ according to gender, in line with social role theory (Eagly, 1987) or gender-based socialization (Wayne et al., 2007).

52Future studies might also explore the similarities and the differences between men’s and women’s life-domain interactions and well-being, taking into account their age categories and career life stages. Finally, as our findings underscore the promising value of incorporating COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002) and the work-home resource model (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, 2012), researchers should retain them to provide new insights into understanding the complex processes that contribute to men’s and women’s life-domain balance and well-being.

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Date de mise en ligne : 19/12/2016

https://doi.org/10.3917/grh.162.0065

Notes

[1]
The authors are grateful to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Université de Rennes 1 (France) for their financial support for the research project this study is part of.

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@GRH 2016/2 n° 19

Article de revue

Relationships between life-domain interactions and well-being: a comparison between men and women

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Notes

1 – Literature review

1.1 – Subjective and psychological well-being

1.2 – Life-domain conflicts and enrichments

1.3 – The differences between women’s and men’s life-domain interactions

1.4 – The gender impact on the relationship between life-domain interactions and well-being

1.5 – The respective impacts of life-domain conflicts and life-domain enrichment on men’s and women’s well-being

2 – Method

Relations among all research variables (Pearson correlation, r)

Relations among all research variables (Pearson correlation, r)

3 – Results

3.1 – The differences between women’s and men’s life-domain interactions through t-test analyses

Analysis of the differences between men and women (t-tests)

Analysis of the differences between men and women (t-tests)

3.2 – The gender impact on the relationship between life-domain interactions and well-being through moderated multiple regression analyses

The effects of life-domain conflicts and enrichments upon subjective well-being and psychological well-being

The effects of life-domain conflicts and enrichments upon subjective well-being and psychological well-being

Links between life-domain enrichments (WL→PL or PL→WL) and subjective and psychological well-being that are statistically different between men and women

Links between life-domain enrichments (WL→PL or PL→WL) and subjective and psychological well-being that are statistically different between men and women

3.3 – The respective impacts of life-domain conflicts and enrichments on men’s and women’s well-being through hierarchical regression analyses

Relations between life-domain interactions and well-being: results of hierarchical regression analyses among women and men subsamples

Relations between life-domain interactions and well-being: results of hierarchical regression analyses among women and men subsamples

4 – Discussion

4.1 – Implications for practice

4.2 – Limitations and future research

References

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